As a consequence of such technology down scaling, integrated circuits (ICs) are now characterized by: 1) higher device density, 2) larger chip size, 3) thinner and longer interconnect wires, and 4) higher frequencies in the order of several GHz, and 5) increased operating power dissipation. These characteristics have caused compromises in signal integrity. It is common now to encounter noise failures such as crosstalk and simultaneous switching noise (SSN), (more commonly known as ground bounce). High current densities are causing electromigration and self-heating effects resulting in lowering the operating frequencies.

Updating of algorithms used in CAD tools to guide the design processes to produce sturdier circuits is the first step towards solving the reliability problems encountered at present and is expected to continue in the future. Furthermore, using vertical integration for closer interaction between the logic and physical design phases is becoming indispensable.